The Shocking History of the Great False Church

The historic relationship between the Roman Catholic Church and Europe is a relationship that has shaped the history of the Western World. Today Europe stands at a momentous crossroads. Events taking shape there will radically change the face of the Continent—and the world! To properly understand today's news and the events that lie ahead, a grasp of the sweep of European history is essential. Only within an historical context can the events of our time be fully appreciated. This narrative is written in the historic present to give the reader a sense of being on the scene as momentous events unfold on the stage of history.

(Much of the information contained in this book is from an earlier work published many years ago by an organization that no longer publishes the information contained in this book.)

Kingdom Imminent?

Amid all the upheaval in Rome, Judea and elsewhere in the Empire, what is the mood of the Christian community? What thoughts course through the minds of Christians at this time?

Though many are suffering—uprooted from homes, imprisoned, tortured, bereaved of family and friends—the prevailing spirit among Christians is one of hope and anticipation!

Christians are sustained by the knowledge that Jesus and the prophets of old had foretold these tumultuous events—and their glorious outcome!

As events swirl around them, they watch with breathless expectation. They take hope in the great picture laid out by Jesus from the beginning of His earthly ministry—the return of Jesus Christ and the reestablishment of the kingdom of God! As Mark records:

"Now after that John was put in prison, Jesus came into Galilee, preaching the gospel [good news] of the kingdom of God, and saying, 'The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand: repent ye, and believe the gospel'" (Mark 1:14-15).

Everywhere Jesus went, he focused on this major theme—the good news of the coming kingdom of God. The twelve disciples were sent out to preach the same message (Luke 9:1-2). The apostle Paul also preached the kingdom of God (Acts 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31).

Christians—in that first century—are in no doubt as to what that kingdom is. It is a literal kingdom—a real government, with a King, and laws and subjects—destined to rule over the earth. It is the government of God, supplanting the governments of man!

Christians rehearse and discuss among themselves the many prophecies about this coming government. By now they know the passages by heart.

The prophet Daniel, for example, had written of a succession of world-ruling governments through the ages (Daniel 2)—four universal world-empires: Babylon, Medo-Persian, Greek-Macedonian, and Rome. Daniel declared that after the demise of these earthly kingdoms, "the God of heaven [shall] set up a kingdom, which shall never be destroyed…but it shall break in pieces and consume all these kingdoms, and it shall stand for ever" (Dan. 2:44).

This kingdom will rule over the nations. It will 'break in pieces and consume" the Roman Empire—surely very soon, Christians feel!

Soon the swords and spears now spilling blood across the vast territories of the Empire would be beaten into plowshares and pruning hooks, as Isaiah had prophesied (Isa. 2:4). Jesus would return and "the government shall be upon His shoulder" (Isa. 9:6).

For more than four millennia the righteous ancients had looked for the triumph of this kingdom. Now, with Jerusalem the focus of world events in A.D. 66-70, surely it is about to arrive!

The Waiting

During the days of Jesus' earthly ministry, some had thought He would establish the kingdom of God then and there. Because they thought that the Kingdom of God should immediately appear, Jesus had told His disciples the parable of the nobleman who went on a journey into a far country "to receive for himself a kingdom, and to return" (Luke 19:11-12).

As Jesus later told Pilate, He was born to be a king. But His kingdom was not of this world [age] (John 18:36). He would return at a later time to establish His kingdom and reward His servants. His disciples no more understood that than did Pilate.

After His crucifixion and resurrection, Jesus' disciples again asked Him, "Lord, wilt thou at this time restore again the kingdom to Israel?" (Acts 1:6). Jesus told them that it was not for them to know the times or the seasons (verse 7). They found that hard to comprehend. But Jesus nevertheless commissioned them to "be witnesses unto Me…unto the uttermost part of the earth" (verse 8).

For nearly four decades they had preached the gospel throughout the Roman world and beyond. Now, tumultuous events signal a change in world affairs. Signs of the end of the age—given by Jesus in the Olivet prophecy (Matthew 24)—seem to become increasingly evident on the world scene.

Rome, with civil war in A.D. 69, appears to be on a fast road to economic crisis, political turmoil, social upheaval, religious confusion, natural disasters—all these signs are here. The very fabric of Roman society is disintegrating. It is a rotten and a degraded world. Surely Jesus will soon come to correct all that!

That the Roman Empire is the fourth "beast" of Daniel's prophecy (Daniel 7) is clear to Christians. With that fourth kingdom in the throes of revolution, God's kingdom surely will come soon!

Amid horrendous persecutions, martyrdoms and national upheavals, they wait for their change from material to spirit (1 Cor. 15:50-53) and their reward of positions of authority and rulership in God's kingdom (Luke 19:17-19).

"I will come again," said Jesus (John 14:3). Christians pray, "Thy kingdom come."

They wait.

And wait.

But it doesn't happen.

Another Shock!

There remains one last obstacle to the complete triumph of heresy—the apostle John. John is the last survivor of the original twelve apostles. He works tirelessly to stem the tide of error and apostasy.

Writing early in the last quarter of the first century, John declares that "many deceivers are entered into the world" (2 John 1:7). He writes of the many who have already left the fellowship of the Church of God: "They went out from us, but they were not of us" (1 John 2:19). He reveals that some apostate CHURCH LEADERS are even casting true Christians out of the church!! (3 John 1:9-10.)

During the persecutions of the Roman emperor Domitian, John is banished to the Aegean island of Patmos. There he receives an astounding revelation.

In a series of visions, John is carried forward into the future, to the "day of the Lord"—a time when God will supernaturally intervene in world affairs, sending plagues upon the unrighteous and sinning nations of the earth. And a time that will climax in the glorious Second Coming of Jesus Christ!

The picture laid out in vision to John represents another major shock for the first-century Church. Here are astounding, almost unbelievable revelations! Images of multi-headed beasts, of great armies, of strange new weapons, of devastating plagues and natural disasters!

What does it all mean?

New Understanding

After publication of the Revelation, those with understanding begin to grasp the message. It becomes clear to them that Jesus' coming is not as imminent as once believed. Whole sections of the book of Daniel, previously obscure, now become clearer. These great events revealed to John by Jesus Christ will not occur overnight. Great periods of time appear to be implied—centuries, possibly millennia!

Some few begin to see the teaching of Jesus in new light. He had stated in His Olivet prophecy (Matt. 24:22) that unless those last days were shortened, that no human being would survive. They could not understand how there could ever be enough swords, spears, arrows—and men to use them—to ever threaten the global annihilation of all mankind.

Now, John's visions provide an answer. There would ONE DAY come a time when never-before-heard-of super-weapons—described by John in strange symbolic language—would make total annihilation possible! ONE DAY…but not now. There will yet come a future crisis over Jerusalem, many also realize. There will come a time when Jerusalem will AGAIN be compassed with armies (Luke 21:20), triggering a crisis even greater than that of A.D. 66-70!

Some also begin to realize that Jesus' commission to his disciples to take the gospel "to the uttermost parts of the earth" might be meant literally! Jesus had prophesied that "this gospel of the kingdom shall be preached IN ALL THE WORLD for a witness unto all nations; and THEN shall the end come" (Matt. 24:14). And that worldwide undertaking would require time—a great deal of time!

Some few begin to see clearly. But many cannot handle this new understanding. Some even begin to falsely teach that the kingdom is already here—that it is the Church itself, or in the hearts of Christians.

John is released from imprisonment in A.D. 96. In his remaining days he and faithful disciples strive to keep the Church true to the faith as he was personally instructed in it by Jesus Himself.

The First Century closes with the death of the aged apostle John in the city of Ephesus.

Jesus has not yet come. Some continue to wait. Others within and without the fellowship of the true Church of God begin to take matters into their own hands.

Actually, the groundwork for this blatant heresy being accepted by so many people had been laid about twenty-five years earlier. Clement (perhaps the same Clement mentioned by the apostle Paul in Phil. 4:3), then the leading minister (elder/overseer/bishop) of Rome, writes a blistering letter to the Church at Corinth, condemning them for ejecting men from the Church who had been ordained by the apostles. He appeals for "unity," but then he goes a step too far by telling the Corinthians that they must not forsake the bishop, but must follow him! He also tells them that THEIR SALVATION IS AT STAKE—unless they follow the appointed leaders of the Church!

What were Clement's intentions? Perhaps the Corinthians were indeed ejecting faithful leaders from the Church—something they should NOT have been doing.

But Clement should never have demanded that the Corinthians BLINDLY follow the leaders of the Church! Instead, he should have demanded that they follow Jesus Christ, and if the ministers are following Christ, then they should follow them. (Otherwise, it would have been perfectly fine for them to reject false leaders.)

Unfortunately, the emphasis was put on following fallible human leaders and not on the infallible Word of God. And regrettably this false line of reasoning would come back to haunt the Church about twenty-five years later when MANY believers would accept the false teaching of bishop Sixtus of Rome as he replaces Passover with Easter (a blatant pagan festival).

Sadly, thinking that what they had been taught over the last twenty-five years or so by certain Church leaders was true—that they must follow the ministry (otherwise their salvation could be at risk)—many in and around Rome become easy prey for Satan the devil.

Then following in the wake of Easter would come another false doctrine—the replacing of the true Sabbath Day (Saturday, the seventh day of the week) with the pagan day of worshiping the Sun—Sunday—the first day of the week. As Easter was considered the annual celebration of the resurrection of Christ, Sunday would become known as the weekly Easter—that is—the weekly celebration of the resurrection of Christ.

But unfortunately for those who keep Easter and Sunday, the Bible NEVER tells us to do any such thing (or to ever celebrate the resurrection of Jesus)! On the contrary, the Bible commands us to observe the seventh-day Sabbath (which is the 4th of the 10 commandments—see Ex. 20:8-11) as well as commemorate the death of Christ (Passover)!

But meanwhile, as those in ROME and the surrounding areas apostatize, Christians in the East remain faithful to the Word of God.

It is now A.D. 154. The bishop of Asia Minor—Polycarp (the disciple of the apostle John and leader of the church in Asia Minor ever since the death of John)—travels to Rome to discuss with the current bishop of Rome (Anicetus) the keeping of Easter.

Polycarp tells Anicetus that Christians are not to keep Easter but are instead to observe the Passover. Anicetus tells Polycarp that the previous four bishops of Rome (Pius, Hyginus, Telesphorus, and Sixtus) all kept Easter and appealing to "tradition" he says that he will continue to do the same. Polycarp then tells Anicetus that he received his teaching firsthand from the apostle John—and that John received it directly from Jesus Christ Himself! But Anicetus (like the church leader Diotrephes mentioned in 3 John 1:9-10) is apparently unmoved with what the apostle John taught and pledges to continue in his wayward ways.

This dispute between Polycarp and Anicetus would become known in history as the Quartodeciman Controversy—as Polycarp insisted that Christians are to keep the Passover every year on the 14th (quartodeciman) day of the 1st month (of the Biblical calendar).

Several decades later (A.D. 196) history repeats itself when Polycrates (the disciple of Polycarp and the bishop and leader of Asia Minor since Polycarp's death) writes a letter to the new bishop of Rome (Victor) in hopes of persuading him to give up the heresies he acquired from the previous bishops of Rome. But like Polycarp before him, Polycrates is unable to convince the bishop of Rome to repent of his false doctrines. Victor not only defends his unbiblical teachings but he even threatens to excommunicate Polycrates. But Polycrates is unimpressed with such petty and ridiculous threats. (More information on Polycarp and Polycrates can be found at the end of this book.)

Persecution Continues

Regardless of their doctrinal differences—whether apostate or faithful—all who CALL THEMSELVES Christian continue to suffer persecution.

The polytheistic Romans are not by nature intolerant of other religions. They permit many different forms of belief and worship. They have even incorporated elements of the religions of conquered people into their own.

But the various sects of Christianity pose a special problem. Adherents to the various pagan religions readily accommodate themselves to the deification of the emperor and the insistence that all loyal citizens sacrifice at his altar. But this kind of "patriotism" goes far beyond what is possible for any Christians. So they are punished—not because they are Christians per se, but because they are "disloyal."

Nero, the first of the persecuting emperors, had set a cruel precedent. During the next 250 years, 10 major persecutions are unleashed upon Christianity.

Surprise in Rome

It is now 312. The persecution inaugurated by Diocletian nine years earlier still rages. In Rome, Miltiades is bishop over the Christian groups there.

By this time, the bishop of Rome has come to be generally acknowledged as the leader of Christianity in the West. He is called "pope" (Latin, papa, "father"), an ecclesiastical title long since given to many bishops. (It will not be until the 9th century that the title is reserved exclusively for the bishop of Rome.)

Of the 30 bishops of the Church at Rome before Miltiades, all but one or two had died a martyr's death. With a violent persecution underway, Miltiades expects nothing better.

It is October 28. Miltiades emerges from his small house to discover the great Constantine standing in the street before him! With him are guards with drawn swords.

Constantine has just defeated his brother-in-law and chief rival Maxentius (son of the old Western emperor Maximian) at the Milvian Bridge near Rome. Winning this key battle has secured Constantine's throne. He is now sole emperor in the West.

But what does Constantine want of Miltiades? Does he intend to cap his victory by personally executing the leader of Rome's Christians?

The emperor steps forward. With Miltiades' chief priest, Silvester, serving as interpreter, Constantine begins to speak.

What Miltiades hears astonishes him and signals the beginning of a new era. The world will never be the same again!

The Flaming Cross

Just before the battle of Milvian Bridge, Constantine had seen a vision. In the sky appeared a flaming cross, and above it the words, In Hoc Signo Vinces ("In this sign, conquer!"). Stirred by the vision, he ordered that a Christian symbol be inscribed upon the standards and shields of the army.

The battle was then fought in the name of the Christian God. Constantine was victorious. Maxentius was defeated and drowned.

The crucial victory spells not only supreme power for Constantine, but a new era for the Church. Constantine becomes the first Roman emperor to profess Christianity, though he delays baptism until the end of his life. A magnificent triumphal arch is erected in his honor in Rome. It ascribes Constantine's victory to the "inspiration of the Divinity."

Soon afterward, Constantine issues the Edict of Milan (313), granting Christians full freedom to practice their religion. Though pagan worship is still tolerated until the end of the century, Constantine exhorts all his subjects to follow his example and become Christians.

Constantine donates to the bishop of Rome the opulent Lateran Palace. When Silvester is named bishop of Rome upon Miltiades' death in January, 314, HE IS CROWNED—CLAD IN IMPERIAL RAIMENT—AS AN EARTHLY PRINCE. The emperor fills many chief government offices with Christians and provides assistance in building churches.

Things have indeed changed!

For centuries persecuted by the Empire, the Christian Church has now become allied with it! Christianity assumes an INTIMATE RELATIONSHIP with the secular power. It quickly grows to a position of great influence over the affairs of the Empire.

Christians of decades past would not have believed it. They are free from persecution. The Emperor himself is a Christian! It is simply "too good to be true." Yet it is true!

Many Christians puzzle over this new order of things. For nearly three centuries they had waited for the return of Jesus Christ as deliverer. They had waited for the fall of Rome, and the triumph of the kingdom of God.

But now the persecutions have ended. The Church holds a position of power and respect throughout the Empire. The picture appears bright for the faith!

What does it all mean?

Christians of various persuasions see many prophecies of persecution in the Scriptures. But NOWHERE do Jesus or the apostles foretell a popular growth and universal acceptance of the Church. No prophecy says that the Church of God will become great and powerful in this world.

Yet look what has happened! How is it to be understood?

After centuries of believing that the kingdom was "not of this world"—that the world and the Church would be at odds until Jesus' return—professing Christians now search for an explanation to the new state of affairs.

Church–State Confrontation

Constantine the Great dies on May 22, 337. Water is poured on his forehead and he is declared "baptized" on his deathbed.

In 365 (as mentioned previously), the Council of Laodicea will prohibit the keeping of the seventh-day Sabbath (the "Jewish Sabbath") by Christians—even though this is the same day that Jesus, the apostles, and ALL Christians kept holy in the 1st century—and the same day that God commanded to be kept holy forever (THE 4TH OF THE 10 COMMANDMENTS–Exodus 20:8-11)! And anyone caught resting and worshiping on the seventh-day Sabbath is declared "anathema"—a virtual death sentence!

So now—not only are Christians forbidden to keep the annual Passover—but they are also forbidden to keep the 7th day Sabbath as well. And anyone caught keeping either one will incur the death penalty!

In 394, under Emperor Theodosius (378-395), the ancient heathen gods are formally outlawed in the Empire. Conversion to Christianity becomes compulsory. Now everyone is compelled to keep both Easter and Sunday.

The power of the Church in Theodosius' time is best illustrated in an incident involving Ambrose, the archbishop of Milan. A man of savage temper, Theodosius orders the massacre of about 7,000 people of Thessalonica, as a punishment for a riot that had erupted there. The Thessalonians are butchered—the innocent with the guilty—by a detachment of Gothic soldiers sent by Theodosius for that purpose.

When the Emperor later attempts to enter the cathedral in Milan, Ambrose meets him at the door and refuses him entrance until he publicly confesses his guilt in the massacre. Though privately remorseful, the Emperor is reluctant to diminish the prestige of his office by such a humiliation. But after eight months, Theodosius—the master of the civilized world—finally yields and humbly implores pardon of Ambrose in the presence of the congregation. On Christmas Day, A.D. 390, he is restored to the communion of the Church. The incident emphasizes the independence of the Western Church from imperial domination.

Theodosius is the last ruler of a united Roman Empire. At his death the Empire is divided between his two sons Honorius (in the West) and Arcadius (in the East). Though in theory only a division for administrative purposes, the separation proves to be permanent. The two sections grow steadily apart, and are never again truly united. Each goes its own way towards a separate destiny.

Barbarian Inroads

Meanwhile, the restless Gothic and Germanic tribes to the north grow stronger and more threatening to the peace of the Empire. For centuries the Romans have fought off the barbarian hordes. Now these tribes begin to move into the Empire in force.

Not all, however, have come as enemies. For decades many tribes have been coming across the Roman frontiers peaceably, as settlers. Many Germans are now serving in the Roman army, and some in the imperial palace itself.

When Emperor Theodosius dies (395), one of these Germans is even named as guardian of his young son Honorius. He is Stilicho, a "barbarian" of the Vandal nation. A brilliant general, Stilicho repeatedly beats back attempted invasions of Italy by various barbarian tribes.

Most troublesome of all is Alaric the Visigoth. Stilicho repels numerous assaults by Alaric into the peninsula.

But Honorius is jealous of the general who has so often saved Rome. In August, 408, he has Stilicho assassinated. The news of his death rouses Alaric to yet another invasion.

For a costly ransom, Alaric spares Rome in 409. But the next year he comes again. On August 10, A.D. 410, Alaric takes the "Eternal City," and for six days Rome is given up to murder and pillage. For the first time in nearly 800 years, Rome is captured by a foreign enemy!

It is a profound shock. Many cannot believe it. When Jerome—the translator of the Bible into Latin—hears the news in Bethlehem, he writes:

"My voice is choked, and my sobs interrupt the words I write. The city which took the whole world is herself taken. Who could have believed that Rome, which was built upon the spoils of the earth, would fall?"

Many bemoan the event as the fall of the Western Roman Empire. But there is still an emperor on the imperial throne. In a ceremonial way, at least, the Empire continues.

Alaric withdraws from the city and dies soon afterward. Rome grants the Visigoths the richest parts of Gaul as a permanent residence. By the middle of the 5th century, barbarian tribes are occupying most parts of the Western Roman Empire.

ROME has fallen!

The greatest power the world has ever known is trampled in the dust. The Empire that had conquered the world is herself conquered!

Italy is overrun by Germanic tribes. Odoacer, a chieftain of the Germanic Heruli, has deposed the boy-monarch Romulus Augustulus. The great city is without an emperor!

The long and gradual collapse is now complete. The ancient world is at an end. The Middle Ages have begun.

The stage is now set for momentous events—events that will determine the course of history for centuries to come.

Master of Italy

In the East, the old Roman Empire still lives, protected by the almost impregnable walls of Constantinople. There, Zeno sits on the throne of the Eastern or Byzantine Empire.

In theory, the German Odoacer accepts the overlordship of Emperor Zeno. Zeno considers Italy one of the administrative divisions of his empire.

In reality, Constantinople has little power west of the Adriatic. Odoacer holds the administration of Italy firmly in his own hands. He is master of the peninsula.

Odoacer perpetuates the Roman form of government, which he admires. He initially encounters little serious opposition from the people of Italy.

But Odoacer is an Arian Christian; that is, a Christian who follows the teachings of the scholar Arius. The Italians, by contrast, are Catholics.

The same is true in North Africa. There, the Germanic Vandals have held sway since A.D. 429. The Vandals, too, continue and maintain the Roman system of administration within their kingdom.

The Vandals are also Arian Christians. They persecute the Catholics within their realm—often fiercely.

The Roman Catholic Church bristles under the feet of the Arian barbarians dominating the West. Since the days of Constantine, the Church had had the wholehearted support of the civil power. Now things have changed radically—for the worst.

Something will have to be done about these hated Arian heretics.

Italy's New "King"

In A.D. 476—the same year Odoacer deposes the last Roman emperor—a young noble named Theodoric becomes leader of the Ostrogoths (East Goths). Theodoric quickly becomes the most powerful of the barbarian kings in southeastern Europe.

Zeno, the Eastern emperor, fears the ambitious Theodoric. To prevent the troublesome Ostrogoths from invading his Eastern Empire, Zeno recognizes Theodoric as "king of Italy" in 488. Zeno hopes to appease Theodoric, thereby ridding himself of the Ostrogothic menace.

Theodoric immediately leads 100,000 Ostrogoths into Italy to claim his kingdom from Odoacer. By the autumn of 490, Theodoric has captured nearly the entire peninsula.

But throughout Italy, military garrisons still hold towns for Odoacer. These bastions must be eliminated!

"Conquer!"

Justinian's career is almost ended before it begins.

Constantinople is a sports-minded city. Its people are divided in their allegiance to different charioteers. They are called the Greens and the Blues, according to the color of dress of their favorite jockeys.

In January 532, a disturbance breaks out between the two factions. The ringleader of each party is punished. In response, the two rival factions unite in armed revolt against the government.

Open violence erupts as the government cracks down on both factions. The city is filled with fire, bloodshed and murder. Thousands are slain in the rioting. The crowd cries out "Nika!" (Greek for "Conquer!"). History will thus record the event as the "Nika Riots."

Justinian's life stands in jeopardy. He decides to abdicate, and prepares to abandon his capital by ship. But at the last moment he is dissuaded by Empress Theodora.

In a bold speech, Theodora turns the tide of her husband's fear. "I will remain, and like the great men of old, regard my throne as a glorious tomb," she declares.

Her firm stand arouses new determination in Justinian. He decides to stand his ground.

Justinian dispatches Belisarius, his trusted and brilliant general, to the Hippodrome with 3,000 veterans. The riots are decisively suppressed. In one day, Belisarius slaughters 30,000!

Justinian's throne is saved.

Had the Emperor been toppled, history might have taken a much different course.

Burning Ambition

Justinian is now in a position to pursue his one burning ambition: the recovery of the Western provinces that his predecessors had lost to the barbarians. His dream is to restore the Roman Empire to its full ancient grandeur—under his own scepter! Justinian sees himself as rightful ruler of the whole Roman world.

But Justinian realizes that there cannot be unity of empire without unity of religion.

Throughout the Empire—West and East—Christianity is established. But the form of Christianity is not the same everywhere. Quarrels over basic articles of faith tear at the unity of Christendom.

Justinian believes that a theological rapprochement will prepare the way for the eventual political reunion of Byzantium and Italy. He views political and ecclesiastical policy as inextricably linked. They are the two major aspects of his envisioned Christian Empire.

One of the most divisive religious controversies centers around the old argument about the union of the human and the divine in Jesus Christ.

Some believe that Christ had only one nature—a divine one—rather than a combined human and divine nature, as Catholics believe. They are called "Monophysites"—believers in one nature.

The West—led by the Pope in Rome—rejects the Monophysite doctrine, charging that it overstresses the divine in Christ at the expense of the human. In A.D. 451, the council of Chalcedon (held in what is now modern Turkey) condemns Monophysitism as heresy, just as the Council of Nicaea had condemned Arianism in 325.

But Monophysitism persists. The Eastern Church is torn between Catholic orthodoxy and the Monophysite doctrine. Zeno and his successor Anastasius sympathize with the Monophysites, triggering a schism between Constantinople and Rome. The Monophysites are powerful in the Eastern provinces of Egypt and Syria. The Eastern emperors do not want to endanger their control of these provinces by condemning the doctrine.

Barbarians Smashed

While the aforementioned ecclesiastical maneuverings are underway, events are moving swiftly ahead in the political sphere.

The persecuted Catholics in North Africa appeal to Justinian to send troops against their Arian Vandal oppressors. This sparks the short-lived Vandalic Wars.

Justinian sends Belisarius—the greatest general of his age—to do the job. In 533-34, imperial armies move against the Vandals. Belisarius makes short work of the barbarians. He receives the submission of the Vandal king Gelimer, and North Africa is reincorporated into the Empire.

Phase Two of Justinian's Grand Design follows immediately: the military reconquest of Italy, the heart and mother province of the Western Empire.

The Ostrogoths have played into Justinian's hands. In his latter years, Theodoric had begun to persecute the Catholic Italians. Following his death, Ostrogothic cruelty toward non-Arians intensifies. Italians look for a deliverer to uproot Arianism.

Justinian now has an excuse for invading Italy. He sees himself as God's agent in destroying the barbarian heretics and winning back the lost provinces of the West. If he succeeds in toppling the barbarian usurper from the Western throne, his dream of restoring the Roman Empire will become reality!

Italy Regained

In 535, Belisarius—fresh from victory in North Africa—arrives in Italy to take on the Ostrogoths. Italy is plunged into war. The fighting will continue for nearly two decades.

In 540, Belisarius captures Ravenna and announces the end of the war. But the Goths soon regroup under a new king, Totila, and again take the offensive. City after city falls to Totila, including Rome in 546. (Totila holds the last chariot races in Rome's Circus Maximus in 549.)

In 549, Belisarius is recalled to Constantinople. In 552, Justinian sends a strong force against Totila under the command of General Narses. Totila is defeated and mortally wounded in the summer of 552. His body is placed at the feet of Justinian in Constantinople.

By 554, the Gothic hold is completely broken. The reconquest of the peninsula is complete. Italy is regained!

Italy is now firmly in Justinian's hands. His Pragmatic Sanction of 554 (mentioned previously) officially restores the Italian lands taken by the Ostrogoths. Italy is again an integral part of the Empire.

The barbarian Arian kingdoms have been uprooted and swept away! The deadly wound of A.D. 476 is healed! The ancient Roman Empire is revived—restored under the scepter of Justinian. Both "legs" of the Empire—East and West—are now under his personal control.

History will memorialize his great achievement as the "Imperial Restoration." It is a milestone in the story of mankind.

Heir of the Caesars

Many territories have been regained. During his reign, Justinian has doubled the Empire's extent!

The great Emperor dies on November 14, 565. He has lived 83 years and reigned 38.

At his death, his restoration is ready to crumble. The resources of the Empire are not sufficient to maintain those territories that have been recovered.

The treasury is empty. The army is scattered and ill paid. Within a century after his death, the Empire will have lost more territory than Justinian had gained!

Just three years after his death, the Longobardi, or Lombards—a Germanic tribe—invade and conquer half of Italy. Again the Eastern Empire is deprived of the greater portion of the Italian peninsula.

The continuing threat of the Empire's traditional enemy to the east—Persia—further saps Byzantium's strength. And soon, the forces unleashed by Mohammed in Arabia will introduce yet another peril. In the meantime, the Roman court of the East will lose much of its Western character.

For these and other reasons, the focus of events will now shift to the West. As the Eastern Empire founders, Papal Rome will turn its eyes toward Western Europe, where the powerful Frankish kingdom is on the rise. Subsequent revivals of the ancient Roman Empire will surface in France, Germany and Austria. The center will shift away from the Mediterranean to the heart of Europe.

But Justinian's efforts are not to be slighted. His reign has signaled a rebirth of imperial greatness. He has been a true Roman emperor, and heir of the Roman Caesars!

Much of what will be envisioned and accomplished by later conquerors who build upon the ruins of the Roman Empire will be owed to the memory of the GRAND DESIGN of Justinian.

The historical consequences will be major.

Lombard Threat

The Church now looks to the Carolingians for protection against the Germanic Lombards, who are occupying much of Italy—and want the rest!

The situation becomes desperate. As the Lombards threaten Rome, Pope Stephen II sets out across the stormy Alps in November 753. His goal is Pepin's winter camp.

The pope asks Pepin to come to his aid. The Church must be protected from the encroachment of the Lombards!

At the same time, Pope Stephen personally anoints and crowns Pepin, and blesses Pepin's sons and heirs.

The Franks answer the call. Pepin invades Italy and defeats the Lombards. He then confers the conquered Lombard territory upon the Pope (754). This gift of rescued lands is called the "Donation of Pepin." It cements the alliance between the Carolingians and the Church.

(The Donation of Pepin is not to be confused with the fictitious "Donation of Constantine," a forgery also dating from about this time. This document—whose falsity would not be proved for another 700 years—ostensibly came from the pen of the Emperor Constantine himself early in the fourth century, when he moved to the new capital of Constantinople. The document purports to be an offer from Constantine to Pope Sylvester I and his successors of temporal rulership over Rome, over Italy and over most territories of the Western world! Believed to be genuine, the parchment carries vast implications and bolsters significantly the prestige and authority of the Papacy.)

New King

Pepin dies in 768. His sons Charles (Karl) and Carloman jointly succeed to the Frankish throne.

In 771, Carloman dies suddenly, and Charles becomes sole king of the Franks.

Though only 29 years old, Charles is an imposing figure. He literally exudes power and authority!

Charles is 7 feet tall—well over a foot above average height—and robust. He is stately and dignified in bearing, but is known for his warmheartedness and charity. He speaks a type of Old High German.

But most important, he is a zealous and dedicated Catholic Christian!

Now in undisputed possession of the Frankish throne, Charles directs his efforts against the enemies of his kingdom. His great goal is to reestablish the political unity that had existed in Europe before the invasions of the fifth century.

He first launches a campaign against the fierce Saxons, who are threatening his frontiers. The Saxons are the last great pagan German nation. During the next three decades, Charles will wage 18 campaigns in his costly and bitter struggle against the stubborn Saxons. In 804 they will finally be Christianized at the point of the sword and incorporated into his empire.

Charles also undertakes campaigns against the Bavarians, Avars, Slavs, Bretons, Arabs and numerous other people. During his long career, he will conduct 53 expeditions and war against 12 different nations! And in the process he will unite by conquest nearly all the lands of Western Europe into one political unit.

Urgent Plea

Pepin had delivered a crushing defeat to the Lombards, but he had not totally subdued them. The Church is now threatened once more. Rome needs a champion!

In 772, Charles receives an urgent plea for aid from Pope Adrian I, whose territories have been invaded by Desiderius, king of the Lombards.

Charles crosses the Alps from Geneva with two armies. In 774 he decisively overthrows the kingdom of the Lombards, deposes Desiderius and proclaims himself sovereign of the Lombards.

Charles is now master of Italy!

Charles takes the title Rex Francorum et Longobardorum atque Patricius Romanorum ("King of the Franks and Lombards and Patrician of the Romans"). The famous "iron crown" of the Lombards—which will become one of the great historic symbols of Europe—is placed upon Charles' head. It will be used in subsequent centuries by Napoleon and other sovereigns of Europe.

Charles confirms and expands the Donation made to the Papacy by his father. This territory will later be known as the states of the Church.

Italy is again united for the first time in centuries. Charles is heralded as defender of the Church and guardian of the Christian faith. The Frankish monarchy and the Papacy stand in partnership against the enemies of civilization!

Charles is now the most conspicuous ruler in Europe. History will know him as Charlemagne—"Charles the Great."

New Society

As head of the recreated empire of the West, Charlemagne presides over a new society born of the union of Roman and German elements. Charlemagne is a German, but he is inspired with the spirit of Rome.

The Emperor organizes his empire on the pattern of the old Roman model. He prizes the traditions of ancient Roman civilization. His Romano-Germanic society will set a precedent for future European monarchs.

Charlemagne's capital is the German city of Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle). Following his coronation, the emperor spends the remaining years of his reign there in comparative quiet. He becomes a patron of learning and the arts, importing scholars from throughout Europe to study and teach at his court.

In 812—two years before his death—Charlemagne receives news from the East. Eastern Emperor Michael I at Constantinople has swallowed his pride and recognized Charlemagne as co-emperor. The equality of the two halves of the Empire is now official.

For all intents and purposes, however, the two "legs" of the Empire are completely autonomous. A plan had been conceived shortly after Charlemagne's coronation to combine his empire with the Byzantine empire through his marriage to the Eastern Empress Irene (780-802). But the plan failed when she was overthrown.

"King Father of Europe"

During the last four years of his life, Charlemagne is subject to frequent fevers. On the 28th day of January, in the year 814, the great Emperor dies at nine o'clock in the morning. His death occurs in the 72nd year of his life, and the 47th of his reign.

The Emperor is buried in the church he built at Aachen, sitting upright with sword in hand. His mammoth achievements will be lauded in popular legend and poetry for centuries to come.

Charlemagne has not ended an age; he has begun one. He will be called rex pater Europae—"King father of Europe." He has shown Europeans an ideal. He has bequeathed to them a common cultural and political tradition. Even in the distant 20th century, men will point to his model as a blueprint for European unity.

Charlemagne has left his mark on European history as no other man. He has, in large measure, determined the political fate of Western Europe.

Catastrophe and Revival

Justinian's "Imperial Restoration" in A.D. 554 fell apart almost immediately upon his death. Charlemagne's empire survives him by only one generation. This cyclical pattern of revival and disintegration will be often repeated in centuries to come.

Charlemagne is succeeded by his son Louis the Pious. The well-meaning but weak Louis is dominated by his wife and by churchmen. He possesses no qualifications for governing the empire to which he succeeds.

Louis dies in 840. Civil war breaks out among his three sons.

In 843, the Treaty of Verdun settles the quarrels among Louis' sons. It divides Charlemagne's empire into three parts—one for each of his grandsons. In short order, however, Europe crumbles into scattered feudal states.

The Carolingian Empire disappears. The political unity of Christian Europe becomes a thing of the past.

In its weakness, Western Europe falls victim to invasions by Northmen, Saracens and Magyars. The Continent is again a political shambles.

Chaos in Rome

The Papacy is also in trouble. The Holy See is increasingly torn by factionalism. Intrigue becomes rampant. THE PAPAL OFFICE IS BOUGHT AND SOLD—AND OCCASIONALLY OBTAINED BY MURDER. The corruption and immorality of the Papacy during this period will prompt later historians to call it a "pornocracy"!

The infamous "Cadaver Synod" serves as a bizarre illustration of the turmoil in Rome.

The body of former Pope Formosus (891-896) is exhumed by newly elected Pope Stephen VI late in 896 and put on trial, charged with treason! The corpse is dressed in papal regalia, assaulted with questions and accusations, then dragged through the streets of Rome with a mob cheering on!

The next year, Pope Stephen is himself overthrown, imprisoned and strangled.

Sergius III, Pope from 904 to 911, attains the office after ordering the murder of his predecessor. His life of open sin with the noted prostitute Marozia brings widespread disrepute upon the Papacy. Sergius fathers a number of sons by Marozia, among them the future Pope John XI. Sergius' reign begins a period known as "The Rule of the Harlots."

New Champion

Chaos reigns in Rome—and throughout Europe.

The situation is grave. It becomes clear to many that the disunity and weakness in Europe is tied closely to the disunity and weakness of the Church—and vice versa.

Perceptive churchmen realize that they must call in a strong prince to again unite Europe. Western civilization must be saved!

With the Frankish realm in eclipse, Rome must look elsewhere for a champion to resurrect the tradition of imperial unity.

When the next great Emperor appears in Western Europe in the middle of the 10th century, he will not be a Frank but a Saxon German. As medieval Germany rises to a predominant position in the West, the dignity of the title of Roman Emperor will become permanently connected with that of the king of Germany.

The first German Reich is about to appear on the scene!

Carolingian Tradition Revived

In August 955, Otto halts an invasion of the pagan Magyars, who have been conducting annual raids on Germany. In this momentous Battle of Lechfeld (Augsburg), he delivers a decisive blow to the invaders. The Magyar menace is ended.

Otto can now rightfully claim the title "protector of Europe." He is widely viewed as another Charles Martel, who stopped the Islamic Saracen advance in Western Europe in A.D. 732. Otto was, in fact, a descendant of Charles Martel and of Charlemagne.

Meanwhile, the Papacy continues in tragic decline. Sergius III (904-911) gains the Papal chair through murder and lives openly with the prostitute Marozia. Their illegitimate son becomes Pope John XI (931-935). Under Pope John XII (955-964), the Lateran palace becomes a literal brothel.

Rome, and all Italy, are in chaos. Pope John XII appeals to Otto to restore order to the peninsula and to assist him against his adversaries. In 961 Otto sweeps into Italy and defeats the enemies of the Pope.

Pope John recognizes Otto's position in Europe by crowning him Holy Roman Emperor on February 2, 962. Not since that historic Christmas Day in A.D. 800, when the Western Roman Empire was restored by the coronation of Charlemagne, has an event of such magnitude occurred.

Western Europe again has an Emperor! Charlemagne's Empire is revived in an alliance between Emperor and Church. With the support of the Church, Otto reigns supreme throughout Western Christendom over the German Reich, or Empire.

The year 962 marks the restoration of the imperial tradition. Later historians will view it as the beginning of what would later be officially styled the Sacrum Romanum Imperium Nationis Germanicae—the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation." (The full term will not be officially applied until the 15th century.)

Throughout the Middle Ages, the imperial title and German kingship will remain indissolubly united. It will be the kings of the Germans, crowned by the Pope, who will henceforth be named Holy Roman Emperors. Germany is the heart and core—the power center—of the Empire.

The octagonal Imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire is made especially for the coronation of Otto in 962. For centuries to come, it will be the very symbol of the concept of European unity.

Stabilizing Influence

Shortly after his coronation, Otto issues his controversial Privilegium Ottonianum, ordering Pope John to take an oath of obedience to him. The Pope rebels, and conspires with Otto's enemies.

Late in 963 Otto calls a council at St. Peter's in Rome, which deposes John for conspiracy and misconduct. Otto's own candidate is elected Pope in his place.

Otto believes it is his duty to preserve and strengthen Church institutions. He seeks to use the Church as a stabilizing influence in Europe. But he also wants the Church subordinate to the authority of the Empire.

On May 7, 973, Otto the Great dies and is buried in Magdeburg. He leaves a peaceful and secure Empire. His son Otto II (973-983) succeeds him.

Otto III—son of Otto II—is crowned as German king at Aachen late in 983. He is but 3 years old, so his mother and grandmother serve as regents.

The king comes of age in 994. Two years later he answers an appeal by Pope John XV and puts down a rebellion in Italy. By the time he reaches Rome, the Pope is dead. Otto then secures the election of his cousin, Bruno of Carinthia, as Pope Gregory V. He is the first German Pope.

On May 21, 996, Otto is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Gregory. Otto makes Rome the administrative center of the Empire and spends much of his time there. In 998 Otto sets on his seal the inscription, Renovatio imperii Romanorum—"restoration of the Empire of the Romans." Roman ideals are still strong in Western Europe.

Otto realizes that the united Europe he and his dynasty have envisioned must have a worthy religious head. The Papacy must be raised to a position of European esteem. Its influence must be revived.

When Pope Gregory V dies in 999, Otto nominates his former teacher, the scholar Gerbert of Aurillac. Gerbert becomes Pope, with the name Sylvester II. He is the first French Pope.

Both Sylvester and Otto dream of an Empire in which Emperor and Pope would serve as joint heads of a unified entity. Sylvester strives to raise the reputation of the Papacy throughout Europe. He denounces some of his unworthy predecessors as "monsters of more than human iniquity," and as "Antichrist, sitting in the temple of God and playing the part of God."

Otto hopes for a harmonious alliance of future Emperors and Popes. But it is not to be so.

Soon after Canossa, the struggle breaks out again. In 1122 the Concordat of Worms ends a bitter contest between Holy Roman Emperor Henry V (1106-1125)—Henry IV's son—and Pope Calixtus II (1119-1124). It settles the Investiture Controversy by stipulating that an Emperor can still nominate bishops and abbots, but the clergy will do the actual choosing and can refuse approval of an Emperor's nominees. Emperors are permitted to confer upon new bishops only the temporal insignia of their offices, due them in their position as vassals of the crown. The spiritual symbols—the ring and staff—can be bestowed only by the Church.

Even after this compromise, the struggle for supremacy between Empire and Papacy will continue for centuries. But despite their incessant rivalry, the Papacy and Empire will remain closely associated throughout the Middle Ages. Their mutual need for each other override disagreements of lesser importance.

Pope Versus Emperor

The power and influence of the Papacy at this time is evidenced by the popular reaction to the Papal call, late in 1095, for the First Crusade. Pope Urban II exhorts Christians throughout Europe to come to the aid of the Byzantine Emperor, who is threatened by advancing Turks, and to free holy Jerusalem from the "legions of Antichrist"—the Moslems.

Reaction to Urban's plea is extraordinary. The outpouring of popular enthusiasm for the cause sets in motion a succession of military expeditions to the Holy Land that will continue for two centuries before ending in dismal failure. And for a time, the prestige of the Papacy is greatly enhanced by this wave of religious fervor.

But the prestige and power of the Holy Roman Emperor has taken a turn for the worst. The Emperor's power has been seriously weakened by the lay investiture struggle. With the death of Henry V in 1125, Germany and the Empire are beset by civil strife and chaos. Many fear the Empire will fall completely to pieces.

Two rival dynasties of German nobles scramble to gain the imperial throne—the Welfs (or Guelphs) and the Hohenstaufens. The Hohenstaufens are descended from Henry IV in the female line.

Finally, in 1138, Conrad III comes to the German throne. Conrad—a grandson of Henry IV and nephew of Henry V—is the first king of the Hohenstaufen family. The Hohenstaufens will preside over the Empire until 1268.

Conrad is followed, in 1152, by his nephew Frederick, who will be known to history as Frederick I Barbarossa ("Red Beard"). Frederick is formally crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Adrian IV in Rome on June 18, 1155. He will reign for nearly four decades.

Frederick Barbarossa considers himself the spiritual heir of his predecessors, Charlemagne and Otto the Great (from whom he is also descended physically), and of the great imperial tradition. His desire is to restore the glory of the Roman Empire. As a later chronicler will observe, "During all his reign nothing was dearer to his heart than the reestablishment of the Empire of Rome on its ancient basis."

Frederick imposes order on Germany, and intervenes in Italian and Papal politics. This sparks a renewal of the imperial conflict with the Papacy in the form of a bitter feud with Pope Adrian.

As had many of his predecessors, Frederick seeks to make the Church subordinate to the authority of the Empire. When asked from whom his imperial office is received, Frederick declares to Papal legates, "We hold our kingdom and our empire not as a fief of the Pope but by election of the princes from God alone."

Pope Adrian counters, "What were the Franks till Pope Zacharias welcomed Pepin? The chair of Peter has given and can withdraw its gifts!"

Frederick realizes, however, that a full-blown feud with Rome could have disastrous consequences. In 1177 he publicly makes peace with Adrian's successor, Pope Alexander III. But the peace is to be short-lived.

"The Beast"

Emperor Frederick Barbarossa dies by accidental drowning in 1190, while leading the Third Crusade. His son, Emperor Henry VI (1190-1197), further strengthens the Hohenstaufen Empire. But after his death, civil war erupts in Germany.

In 1212 a new German king finally emerges from the chaos. He is Frederick II, Frederick Barbarossa's grandson. In 1215 Frederick II is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Innocent III.

Innocent seeks to reduce the Empire to a plaything of the Pope. He asserts that kings derive their powers from the Pope, just as the moon derives its light from the sun. Innocent declares that the Pope is "less than God but more than man."

"No king can reign happily," Innocent claims, "unless he devoutly serves Christ's vicar."

Emperor Frederick II does not openly quarrel with Innocent III. He does, however, wage a fierce struggle with later Popes, notably Gregory IX (1227-1241).

Frederick's ambition is to rule all of Italy, including Rome. This desire for full control of Italy brings him into direct conflict with the Papacy.

Frederick is finally excommunicated by Pope Gregory, who calls the Emperor a heretic and the personification of Antichrist.

"Out of the depths of the sea rises the beast," shouts Gregory in a reference to Revelation 13, "filled with the names of blasphemy….Behold the head, the middle and the end of this beast, Frederick, this so-called emperor."

Pope Gregory also speaks of Frederick as "this scorpion spewing poison from the sting of his tail."

Frederick lashes back, labeling Pope Gregory the Antichrist.

"The Roman Church has never erred," Gregory counters. "To resist it is to resist God!"

The Papacy and the "viper brood" of Hohenstaufens are locked in a mortal struggle. In its wake, the last remnants of imperial power will be damaged almost beyond repair.

THE Great Interregnum has ended.

By the end of the 13th century, the House of Habsburg is firmly established. The Habsburgs will dominate Europe for centuries.

Succeeding centuries will also witness the decline of the Roman Papacy. Weakened and corrupt, the Papacy loses much of its prestige. The seat of the Papacy even moves from Rome to the southern French city of Avignon, on the Rhone River, for nearly seven decades (1309-1377).

At one point, Rome and Avignon have rival Popes! This disastrous situation, known as the Great Schism, begins in 1378 and lasts for decades. There are two Popes, each claiming to be the true "Vicar of Christ." (By 1409 there are three!) Each Pope excommunicates the other! The scandal is ultimately ended by the Council of Constance (1414-1418), which reunites the Papacy under Pope Martin V.

(Constance also orders the burning of Jan Hus of Bohemia, a forerunner of the Protestant movement.)

Conditions on the religious scene are not good. Corruption and abuse are widespread within the Church. The worldliness and immorality of Popes, bishops and clergy become the objects of outrage. Many demand reforms.

Golden Bull

On the political front, measures are taken to bring an end to the almost perpetual quarrel over succession to the imperial crown.

Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV (1346-1378) issues his famous Golden Bull (so named because of its golden seal) in 1356. It outlines a constitution for the election of kings of Germany. His aim is to exclude Papal interference in Germany's selection of an Emperor.

The Bull provides that a college of seven electors (Kurfürsten)—four secular princes and three archbishops—will choose future emperors. These seven imperial electors will cast the deciding votes. From this point until the end of the Empire, the Emperor is chosen by election.

The term "Holy Roman Empire" (Sacrum Romanum Imperium) is formally adopted in 1157. In 1254 "Holy Roman Empire" first appears in an official document. In 1474, the official title becomes "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" (Sacrum Romanum Imperium Nationis Germanicae), used until 1806.

Habsburg Centuries

Now begins an era of nearly uninterrupted Habsburg rule.

In 1438, the imperial crown is placed on the head of Albert II. He is the first of an unbroken line of Habsburg Emperors that will last for centuries. In 1440 he is succeeded by his cousin Frederick III.

By judicious marriages, the Habsburgs add greatly to their territory and strength. Emperor Maximilian I (1493-1519) marries Mary of Burgundy, heiress of the Netherlands and Burgundy. This marriage will bring the Netherlands and parts of present-day France under Habsburg rule. Frederick III proudly adopts the cryptic motto AEIOU, standing for Austriae Est Imperare Orbi Universo—"It is Austria's destiny to rule the world."

The grandson of Maximilian I—Charles V—is crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1520. He adds to his Habsburg holdings Spain and its possessions in the Americas and southern Italy.

At the height of Charles V's power in the first half of the 16th century, Habsburg territory nearly encircles France!

The Habsburgs now control much of Europe!

THE thunder of the French Revolution echoes across Europe.

In 1789 France rises in revolt against the established order. French revolutionaries storm the Bastille in Paris, symbol of royal despotism. The French monarchy is doomed.

The Revolution transforms French society. The old institutions—the monarchy, the Church, the aristocracy—are overthrown. It is an entirely new beginning!

France is declared a republic. The king, Louis XVI, is convicted of treason and guillotined in January 1793. In October 1793 Queen Marie Antoinette—daughter of Austrian Empress Maria Theresa—also dies by the guillotine.

The Revolution threatens to engulf all of Europe. No institution is safe.

Revolutionaries reject Christianity as part of the discredited old order. A "Feast of Reason" is celebrated in the cathedral of Notre Dame. The calendar is changed to eliminate Christian content. The "Goddess of Reason" is enthroned. A campaign to exterminate religion is declared.

The Papacy is assailed. "Crush the wretch!" is Voltaire's cry against Rome. France attacks the Papal States. Napoleon annexes them in 1809. Pope Pius VII is taken prisoner. The 1,000-year-old temporal power of the Papacy suffers a mortal blow. The Roman Catholic Church in France is totally discredited.

Out of the chaos of the Revolution arises a new French leader. He will carry his eagles across Europe and make himself the master of nations. He is Napoleon Bonaparte.

Rise to Power

Napoleon is a Corsican by birth. His native language is Italian. He is born at Ajaccio in 1769, the same year Corsica is transferred from Genoa to France.

In 1799 Napoleon overthrows the shaky French Directorate and has himself declared First Consul. Quickly consolidating his political and military position, Napoleon embarks on a path of conquest and glory that will rock the foundations of Europe. Nation after nation falls to his armies.

But Napoleon knows he cannot build a durable order without the help of the Church. Neither can he guarantee the continued support of the French masses for his far-reaching military campaigns.

Napoleon realizes he must harness the energies of religion, now reviving in France after its repression by the Revolution. Mending his fences with the Church will serve him well.

In 1801, Napoleon concludes a Concordat with Pope Pius VII, reestablishing the Church in France. Catholicism is recognized as the religion of "the great majority of French citizens."

But Napoleon desires more. His burning ambition is to be crowned Emperor, to follow in the tradition of the Caesars of Rome, of Charlemagne, of Frederick I Barbarossa!

Napoleon intends to revive the great European tradition of imperium—universal dominion.

NAPOLEON has fallen.

The great "Man of Destiny" has fallen victim to his own impossible dream—the unification of Europe under his personal rule. His is yet another failed attempt to rebuild the ancient Roman Empire.

"I wanted to found a European system, a European code of laws, a European judiciary," he laments in his lonely exile on St. Helena. "There would be but one people in Europe."

But Napoleon's dream has come to naught. The victorious powers that have toppled him—Austria, Great Britain, Russia, and Prussia—attempt to put the pieces back together at the Congress of Vienna. Meeting from September 1814 to June 1815, they redraw the map of Europe. They agree to meet periodically thereafter to see to it that the results are permanent.

Among the states of Europe, the strongest voice at this time is that of the Austrian minister Clemens von Metternich. Metternich seeks to establish a system based on the principle of the "balance of power" on the Continent—a system of roughly equal nations in which no single nation can dominate any other.

The victors of the Napoleonic Wars agree to oppose all future attempts to destroy the balance of power in Europe by the dominance of any single nation. Periodic consultations will be held to see to it that the Vienna settlement is maintained.

For the next 39 years, the peace of Europe is generally undisturbed. Nevertheless, a great diplomatic realignment is slowly taking place.

Unification

The downfall of Napoleon and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire has left Germany prostrate. Without a unifying force, Germany is again a mosaic of dozens of rival states and principalities.

The largest and most powerful is Prussia. But through the first half of the 19th century, Austria, too, maintains an important influence in Germany. The rivalry between these two nations will ultimately determine the fate of Europe.

Many Germans dream of a unified nation. At this juncture—the middle of the 19th century—there arises a strong leader who takes German destiny into his hands. It is he who will mold Germany into the most powerful nation in Europe and remake the politics of the Continent.

His name is Otto von Bismarck—the "Iron Chancellor."

Bismarck is appointed prime minister of Prussia by King William I of Prussia in 1862. Bismarck declares he will solve the great issues of the day by "blood and iron."

German unification is achieved through a succession of small wars. In 1864 Bismarck provokes a war with Denmark. He wins German-populated territory.

In June 1866, war erupts between Prussia and Austria. In a brief campaign, Prussia crushes Habsburg Austria at Königgrätz. It is the decisive end to the long rivalry between Prussia and Austria.

The Habsburg emperor is allowed to retain his throne. But Austria is excluded from German affairs. The Catholic Habsburgs are finished as a major factor in Germany. Power passes to Protestant Prussia!

In 1867, Austria concludes a Compromise (Ausgleich) with Hungary. Austria and Hungary become two separate states united by personal allegiance to the Habsburg emperor Francis Joseph. Together they form the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy, or Austro-Hungarian Empire.

But the military defeat at Königgrätz has shattered Austria as a major player in European politics. Under the Habsburgs, Austria had been the foremost power in Europe for four centuries. Now Habsburg Austria has been eclipsed by Hohenzollern Prussia.

THE armistice of November 11, 1918, has brought fighting to an end. After four years of bloodletting, the world has had its fill of war. Weary soldiers limp home. The world yearns for lasting peace.

Early in 1919, Allied leaders meet in Paris to draft a formal peace treaty with Germany. The Treaty of Versailles is the result.

One of its provisions is the establishment of a League of Nations—meant to be a world body where disputes could be resolved peacefully.

The League is one of the proposals of idealistic American President Woodrow Wilson. Wilson has come to Paris to draw up a peace treaty that will insure that the Great War is the "war to end all wars."

But the League is doomed to failure. It is impotent without the membership of the United States, which backs away from involvement in world affairs and does not join the organization.

Wilson is well intentioned. But he does not perceive the spirit behind the forces seeking to dominate the Western world. When another world war breaks out 20 years later, politicians and philosophers will argue over who was to blame for failing to prevent it.

The Great War will be remembered as World War I. Another is on its way.

"Stab in the Back"

Germany's defeat in World War I has been a profound shock to the German people. In one shattering blow, all their hopes for German glory have been crushed.

Though German armies are still on foreign soil when the armistice is signed, Germany accepts the imposed peace terms. By the Treaty of Versailles, Germany is stripped of her overseas possessions and loses more than one tenth of her European territory, including the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.

The treaty fixes Germany's sole responsibility—or "war guilt"—for the outbreak of the war. It requires Germany to pay heavy reparations to the Allies. The terms of the treaty are intended to prevent Germany from ever waging war again. Many Germans consider the treaty a vindictive and harsh peace. It leaves them bitter.

Germany is now a republic. The new Weimar Republic governs a demoralized nation. On every side are dissatisfied groups scheming against it.

Many Germans search for an explanation of their defeat. Some find it in a "stab in the back" theory—the belief that Germany was not militarily defeated in the war, but was "sold out" by unpatriotic politicians who agreed to the armistice.

Intense German nationalism survives the war. Germany is down—but not out. A few Germans work secretly for the day when the Reich will rise again and will reclaim its "rightful place" in Europe. The stage is being set for the rise of a new leader.

Mussolini's Italy

As political and economic turmoil intensifies, Germany and Italy drift toward dictatorship. In November 1921, Benito Mussolini organizes the National Fascist Party in Italy.

To counter communist electoral successes, Italy's King Victor Emmanuel III asks Mussolini in October 1922 to form a government. In 1925, Mussolini assumes dictatorial powers. He takes the title Il Duce ("the leader").

Mussolini dreams of restoring the old glory of Rome. The symbol of his Fascist movement is a device known to the rulers of ancient Rome: a bundle of birch rods bound together with an ax. From the Latin word for this device—fasces—the name Fascism is derived.

But Mussolini sees the need for religious support. Church and State, he believes, must work hand in hand. Without the Church, he cannot succeed.

The Lateran Treaty of 1929 achieves a long-awaited reconciliation between the Papacy and the Italian state. The treaty formally recognizes the State of Vatican City (the world's smallest state, lying wholly within the city of Rome) as fully sovereign and independent under the rule of the Pope. The Lateran Treaty also makes Catholicism the state religion of Italy.

Mussolini sets about modernizing Italy and rebuilding her military machine. He envisions expanding Italian territory in the Mediterranean, Africa and the Balkans.

World War II

The dream of empire is still not dead in Europe! Hitler talks openly of a "new order" there. Germany must expand!

At the same time, Mussolini moves to restore the power and glory of Rome. To Hitler and Mussolini, Europe—the heart of the former Roman Empire—belongs rightfully to Germany and Italy.

The democracies are ill prepared to thwart them. Hitler and Mussolini see this. In October 1936, Germany and Italy sign a friendship treaty, establishing the Rome-Berlin Axis.

The Axis becomes a military alliance with the signing on May 22, 1939, of a formal 10-year political and military alliance called the "Pact of Steel."

Hitler sets his legions in motion. Beginning in 1938, Hitler gobbles up Austrian and Czech territory. Britain and France stand aside, hoping to appease the dictator and avoid another war. They permit Hitler to annex large areas of Czechoslovakia at Munich in September 1938. Still Hitler is not satisfied. In March 1939 his forces overrun the rest of Czechoslovakia.

At last Britain and France realize that Hitler cannot be satisfied. They guarantee the Polish frontiers. When Germany invades Poland on September 1, 1939, Britain and France finally stand up to Hitler.

Europe is again at war. Britain and France declare war on Germany. On September 17, the Soviet Union also invades Poland. The Soviets still have a friendship treaty with Hitler.

No one is ready for the Nazi Blitzkrieg ("lightning war"). In a matter of days Poland is crushed.

In the spring of 1940, German troops overrun Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and France. Britain stands alone against Hitler. German bombers pound London. But Britain will not surrender!

Then Hitler makes a mistake. In June 1941, he turns on Russia, abrogating his friendship treaty with the Soviet dictator Stalin. The Nazi attack on the Soviet Union brings Russia into the war against Hitler.

On December 7, 1941, Japanese forces—allied with Germany and Italy—attack the American naval base at Pearl Harbor. America enters the war.

The overwhelming weight of Allied might finally takes its toll.

After a devastating Allied air assault on Germany, the end comes swiftly. In June 1944, American and British forces invade France. German troops are forced back toward their own borders. The Russians move relentlessly toward Germany from the east.

Hitler's lieutenants urge him to surrender. He refuses, sending legions of young boys to defend Berlin.

On April 30, 1945, as Soviet troops shell the streets of the German capital, Hitler ends his life by his own hand in his underground bunker. "I die with a joyful heart," read his final words.

On May 7, Nazi Germany surrenders unconditionally at Reims, France.

In the Pacific, Japan surrenders on August 15, 1945, after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. World War II is at an end.

Germany Finished?

Despite their crimes, Hitler and Mussolini had stood in a long tradition of European statesmen who sought to unite Europe.

The Third Reich has collapsed. The sixth attempt to resurrect the Roman Empire has failed. Nearly 50 million are dead around the world! It is by far the most destructive war in all history.

Europe is devastated, littered with broken cities and millions of refugees. Germany's industrial base has been destroyed. Germany—and Europe as a whole—will require decades to rebuild. Germany is a beaten nation, under military occupation.

But is it really all over for Germany? An axiom of Napoleonic warfare decrees, "You can do anything with bayonets—except sit on them." Similarly, while Germany lies prostrate, she will not always remain so.

The victors in World War II view the situation the same as after World War I. German militarism must be prevented from again raising its head.

But Hitler's "Thousand Year Reich" is destined NOT to be the last of attempts to revive the old Roman Empire. A final union of nations—a "UNITED STATES OF EUROPE"—will yet arise on the continent!

New Approach

The idea of a united Europe has been discussed for centuries. In 1693 the English Quaker William Penn had proposed the creation of a Parliament of Europe, a congress of states that would settle differences by majority vote.

One of the 19th century's most eloquent advocates of European unity was the French Romantic poet and dramatist Victor Hugo (1802-1885). Exile from France did not quiet his voice. "A day will come," he predicted, "when you, France, you, Russia, you, Italy, you, Germany—all of you, all the nations of the Continent—will, without losing your distinctive qualities and your glorious individuality, merge into a superior unity and constitute European brotherhood….A day will come when all the musket balls and bombs will be replaced by ballots, by universal suffrage of the people, by the sacred arbitrament of a great sovereign senate, which will be to Europe what the Parliament is to England, what the diet is to Germany, and what the legislative assembly is to France."

Postwar planners believe the time has now come.

Europe has been devastated by its second disastrous war in a generation. A Cold War is emerging between the Soviet Union and the West. A new challenge faces the survivors.

There is a growing realization that economic prosperity and lasting security cannot come to Europe if European countries continue to be divided against each other. The days of European nations fighting each other must come to an end. An economic and political framework must be established within which traditional European rivalries will have no place.

Above all, leaders believe, a solution must be found to the "German problem." Germany must be firmly anchored within a new European structure. The idea takes hold that the only way to prevent a resurgence of German nationalism is to permanently bind Germany into Europe.

Unification Begins

British statesman Winston Churchill is widely considered the father of the European movement. In a speech at Zurich in September 1946, Churchill calls for the creation of a "United States of Europe." He wants the nations of Europe to form a regional group compatible with the new United Nations.

Enthusiasm for the European movement grows. In May 1948, more than 700 statesmen representing 16 European nations meet at The Hague in the Netherlands. They call for the political and economic union of Europe.

In April 1949 the Council of Europe is established to promote unity among Western European nations. Its symbol is a circle of 12 gold stars on a blue background.

The next year—1950—French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman proposes the establishment of a European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) to supervise coal and steel production.

The ECSC comes into being on April 18, 1951. Six nations—France, West Germany, Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands and Luxembourg—form this first important European Common Market. Britain declines to participate.

These six countries are often referred to as "Charlemagne Europe"—the heart of Charlemagne's old Frankish Empire!

Six years later, in March 1957, the Treaty of Rome further advances the cause of European unity. The Six create the European Economic Community—the EEC. Their objective: to merge separate economies into a single economic unit.

Many see the Treaty of Rome as a historic milestone in the building of a united Europe.

Europe's "Pope"

Frenchman Jean Monnet is one of the leading architects of the new union. Monnet envisions nothing less than the political union of Europe. Above his desk is a map of Europe without national boundaries.

Monnet serves as the first President of the supranational High Authority governing the Coal and Steel Community. He is widely regarded as the "founding father" of the European Community. Some call him the "Pope of Europe."

Devoutly Catholic, Jean Monnet believes that the soul of the new Europe should be Roman Catholic Christianity. Pope Pius XII is his friend and confidant. Monnet frequently seeks the counsel of the Pontiff on European matters.

Other figures prominent in European unification—most notably French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, and Italian Premier Alcide de Gasperi—are also Roman Catholic and pursue the same goal.

Prophesied in Scripture!

The Bible has much to say about this end-time political-religious union and the dramatic world events that will follow!

The history of church-state relations is foretold in the 17th chapter of the book of Revelation. The apostle John is carried to the wilderness, where he sees a woman (Revelation 17:3-5), representing a church (see Jer. 6:2; Isa. 51:16; 2 Cor. 11:2). She sits astride a "scarlet coloured beast" (Rev. 17:3), which represents a civil power or government (see Dan. 7:6, 17, 23).

Notice where this woman is seated: "And here is the mind which hath wisdom. The seven heads [of the beast] are seven mountains, on which the woman sitteth" (Revelation 17:9).

In Scripture, mountains sometimes symbolize governments. But the immediate reference is apparently to the seven famous hills or mountains on which the city of Rome is situated—the Palatine, Aventine, Caelian, Esquiline, Viminal, Quirinal and Capitoline hills.

This woman—this church—is headquartered at Rome!

In contrast to the chaste woman of Revelation 12 (representing God's true Church), the symbolic woman of Revelation 17 is attired in "purple and scarlet colour" (verse 4)—the traditional colors of the Roman church! She is a fallen woman—a "great whore" (verse 1), guilty of spiritual harlotry. And she is the "mother of harlots" (verse 5), having "borne" wayward spiritual daughters—the Protestant denominations who emerged from within her fold, yet retain some of her false doctrines!

She has made alliances with the secular power. She has committed "fornication" with the kings of the earth (Rev. 17:2).

Notice the significance of the "seven heads": "And there are seven kings: five are fallen, and one is, and the other is not yet come; and when he cometh, he must continue a short space" (verse 10).

At the time of John's writing, five "heads" (kingdoms or governments) of the Roman system are already "fallen"—past history. (They are the kings of the "seven hills.") The Roman Empire, still in existence, "is" the sixth head. One more is yet to come. These revivals—the six historic, and one yet to come—are all called "the beast."

In its final end-time form, the "beast" power is yet to appear. When it does, says prophecy, it will continue a "short space" and will meet a dramatic end!

The "seven heads" (kingdoms) of the prophesied Roman system—representing six historic revivals and one yet to come—are Justinian's "Imperial Restoration" (A.D. 554); the Frankish kingdom (Charlemagne's crowning, A.D. 800); the "Holy Roman Empire" (Otto the Great's crowning, A.D. 962); the Habsburg dynasty (Charles V's crowning, A.D. 1530); the Napoleonic dominion (his crowning, A.D. 1804); German-Italian Axis fascism (1870-1945); and a "United States of Europe" (yet to arise).

In these last days of man's civilization, this union of religion and politics will once again be seen in Europe—for the last time! A united Europe IS COMING—and with a vengeance. The world will be shocked at what lies ahead!

A Final Warning

The apostle John continues: "And the beast [a revived Roman Empire] that was, and is not, even he is the eighth, and is of the seven, and goeth into perdition [destruction]" (verse 11).

Notice it. The eighth "head"—"of [or out of] the seven"—represents an eighth phase, or eighth appearance of the "beast."

The seventh head (a final union of Europe, yet to arise) will give rise to, or transform into, an eighth and final manifestation. This eighth phase will be a powerful union of 10 kings or political leaders (represented by "10 horns" in verses 3 and 12) that will be ultimately destroyed when Jesus Christ returns to earth!

John continues: "And the ten horns which thou sawest are ten kings, which have received no kingdom as yet; but receive power as kings one hour with the beast. These have one mind, and shall give their power and strength unto the beast" (verses 12-13).

These "10 kings" (kingdoms)—existing at Jesus Christ's Second Coming—will unite! They will have "one mind." They "shall give their power and strength unto the beast."

This is NOT NATO—not an alliance of separate sovereign nations, each with its own mind—but a true union, one in which 10 nations pool their resources, surrendering sovereignty to form a United States of Europe!

John describes this development in Revelation 13:1-7. He sees a ferocious beast—a composite of the beast-governments of Daniel 7—rising up (verse 1). This beast receives power from a great red dragon, which is Satan the devil (see Revelation 12:9). The beast is a world-dominating power, and will make "war with the saints" (Rev. 13:7; see also Dan. 7:21).

Notice Revelation 13:3. The beast receives a "deadly wound"—yet the wound is healed. What does this mean?

The symbolic beast of Revelation is the Roman Empire. In A.D. 476, the Empire received a "deadly wound" when it collapsed under the onslaught of the barbarian invasions.

But that wound was healed. The Roman Empire was revived in A.D. 554 under Justinian—and was revived again repeatedly in succeeding centuries. Since that wound was healed, "all the world wondered after the beast" (verse 3).

Polycarp (A.D. 69-155) was the leading elder of the Church of God at Smyrna (located in Asia Minor) and the leading Christian figure in all of Asia Minor. Polycarp was the disciple of the apostle John—who was the last survivor of the 12 apostles (John died in Ephesus in A.D. 100).

Concerning Polycarp, early church historian Irenaeus (A.D. 130-200), wrote:

"But Polycarp also was not only instructed by apostles, and conversed with many who had seen Christ, but was also, by apostles in Asia, appointed bishop [overseer/leading elder] of the Church in Smyrna, whom I also saw in my early youth, for he tarried [on earth] a very long time, and, when a very old man, gloriously and most nobly suffering martyrdom, departed this life, having always taught the things which he had learned from the apostles, and which the Church has handed down, and which alone are true. To these things all the Asiatic Churches testify, as do also those men who have succeeded Polycarp down to the present time" (Irenaeus, Against Heresies, Book III, Chapter 4:3).

In A.D. 154 Polycarp traveled to Rome to discuss with Anicetus—the bishop of Rome—the keeping of Easter. Polycarp told Anicetus that Christians are not to keep Easter but are instead to observe the Passover. Anicetus told Polycarp that the previous four bishops of Rome (Pius, Hyginus, Telesphorus, and Sixtus) all kept Easter, and appealing to "tradition" he said that he would continue to do the same. Polycarp then told Anicetus that he received his teaching firsthand from the apostle John—and that John received it directly from Jesus Christ Himself! But Anicetus was apparently unmoved with what the apostle John taught, and he pledged to continue in his wayward ways.

Concerning this "Quartodeciman Controversy" (which is also called the "Easter Controversy"), early church historian Eusebius (A.D. 263-339) wrote:

"Among these [leading ministers] was Polycarp who visited Rome in the time of Anicetus [about A.D. 154]. Irenaeus says that a minor disagreement arose between them about several matters, and they at once made peace, having no wish to quarrel over a question of this kind [the Passover/Easter controversy]. Anicetus could not persuade Polycarp not to keep [the Passover], since he had always kept it with John the disciple of our Lord and the other apostles with whom he had been familiar; nor did Polycarp persuade Anicetus to keep it: Anicetus said that he must stick to the practice of the presbyters [ministers] who preceded him. In spite of this they remained in communion with each other, and in church, Anicetus made way for Polycarp to celebrate the Eucharist [Lord's Supper/Passover]—out of respect, obviously. They parted company in peace, and the whole Church was at peace, both those who kept [the Passover] and those who did not" (Eusebius, History of the Church, Book V, Chapter 24:16-17).

Concerning the death of Polycarp, Eusebius wrote:

"All this and more Irenaeus confirms….and to Florinus, 'These teachings are not what the [previous] presbyters [ministers] handed down to you—the presbyters who came before us and were companions of the apostles. I saw you when I was still a boy, in Lower Asia in Polycarp's company, when you were doing well in the imperial service and trying to be in favor with him. I can describe the place where the blessed Polycarp used to sit and talk, his goings out and comings in, the character of his life, what he looked like, the sermons he delivered to the people, how he used to describe his relations with John and with the others who had seen the Lord; how he would relate their words, and what things he had heard them say about the Lord and about his miracles and about his teaching; and how Polycarp had received these things from the eyewitnesses of the Word of Life, and used to relate them in agreement with the Scriptures. These things, through God's mercy, I listened to carefully at the time and wrote down, not on paper but in my heart: and ever since, by the grace of God, I constantly go over them in my mind. Before God, I can testify that if the blessed apostolic presbyter had heard something like this [the teachings of the gnostics], he would have cried out and stopped his ears and declared, as he always did, "0 good God, for what times have you reserved me, that I should have to put up with this?" and then would have fled from the spot where he was sitting or standing when he heard such words" (Eusebius, History of the Church, Book V, Chapter 20:4-7).

Also, the anonymous author of the "Epistle to Diognetus" (dated ca. A.D. 130) mentions the observance of Passover:

"From this the type of God's mystery may you learn: For Jesus Christ is our Paschal Lamb, who was sacrificed" (Epistle to Diognetus, Paragraph 12:9).

Polycrates (Encyclopedia Article)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Polycrates (circa 130-196) was bishop of Ephesus in the last decade of the 2nd century. He is best known for his letter addressed to Pope Victor I about the Quartodeciman controversy, a conflict between Roman and Eastern Christians concerning the date on which Easter (also called Passover) should be celebrated.

His episcopal predecessors included seven relatives who were bishops before him: three of the seven were his father, grandfather and great-grandfather; four of the seven were his uncles. (These relatives may have been some of the leaders of the church that Polycarp trained or taught after the death of the apostle John.)

Easter Controversy

The Quartodeciman controversy (also called the Easter Controversy or Paschal Controversy) was the issue of when Christians should celebrate "Easter" (also called Passover—or "Pascha" in Greek). Should it be celebrated according to the timing of the Biblical Passover rite (on the 14th of Nisan, the first month of the ancient Hebrew lunisolar calendar, that may fall on any day of the week), or should it be celebrated on the following Sunday (the "Paschal Sunday", the Sunday after the full moon after the vernal equinox)?

In the late 2nd century, Pope Victor I (189-199) tried to get the Christians of Roman Asia (including those in Ephesus) to adopt the Roman practice of only observing "Easter" on Sunday.

The Christians in Asia insisted on keeping "Easter" (Passover) on the 14th of Nisan as commanded in the Bible and taught by the original apostles.

Eusebius reports that Polycrates in his reply to Pope Victor firmly adhered to the practice of the Christians in Asia, namely the observance of Passover on the 14th of Nisan no matter what day of the week it occurred.

Polycrates appealed to the example of "great lights" who also kept "Easter" (Passover) on the 14th of Nisan:

• Philip the apostle, "who fell asleep in Hierapolis"
• John the apostle, "who reclined upon the bosom of the Lord" and "fell asleep at Ephesus"
• Polycarp, the disciple of the apostle John, "who was a bishop and martyr"
• Thraseas, "bishop and martyr from Eumenaea, who fell asleep in Smyrna"
• Sagaris, "bishop and martyr...who fell asleep in Laodicea"
• Papirius
• Melito "the Eunuch who lived altogether in the Holy Spirit, and who lies in Sardis"
• Seven of Polycrates' own relatives who were bishops before him

Polycrates concluded by asserting that the "fourteen" (Quartodecimans) had an unbroken succession (not from a Bishop of Rome, but) from the original apostles themselves—"We observe the exact day; neither adding, nor taking away. For in Asia also great lights have fallen asleep….All these observed the fourteenth day of the Passover according to the Gospel, deviating in no respect, but following the rule of faith."

Polycrates was unimpressed with the Bishop of Rome's threats—"I, therefore, brethren, who have lived sixty-five years in the Lord, and have met with the brethren throughout the world, and have gone through every Holy Scripture, am not affrighted by terrifying words. For those greater than I have said, 'We ought to obey God rather than man.'"

Pope Victor I attempted to excommunicate the Quartodecimans (including Polycrates). But since the churches in Asia Minor (who kept the Passover) were not in subjection to the bishop of Rome, these threats had no effect.

In the next century, in A.D. 325, the Council of Nicaea officially decreed that Easter was to be kept on the first Sunday after the full moon following the vernal equinox—and the keeping of the Biblical Passover on the 14th of Nisan was forbidden.